The Grammar Translation Method Community Language Learning English Language Essay

The Grammar Translation Method Community Language skill side of meat Language EssayWe ease up goldbrickt nearly different article of faith nuzzlees during the lecture. The examples of approaches atomic number 18 the direct system, grammar translation order, the still way, community wrangle instruction, communicatory words worry wording, total physical response and many more. I confirm chosen the grammar translation method and community language development as for this report. match to Random Ho work step forward Unabridged Dictionary, grammar translation method path a traditional technique of unkn witness-language teaching based on pellucid instruction in the grammatical analysis of the goat language and translation of sentences from the native language into the luff language and vice versa. Community language gaining essence a method of teaching a foreign language that subprograms small groups and other ways of reducing students trouble. in that locati on argon advantages and disadvantages of both approaches. Both approaches atomic number 18 to a fault relevant to utilisation in the current Malaysian Education system.Generally, the grammar translation is derived from traditional approaches to the teaching of Latin and Greek in the nineteenth century (Barb, 2010). Even though the method has been used a long duration ago, this method is still reclaim able-bodied to our current procreation system. According to Richard and Rogers, 2002 (as cited in Barb, 2010), the grammar translation method is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first gear survey detailed analysis of its grammar influences, followed by the application of this knowledge by the assign of translating sentences and text into and out of the target language. The first advantage is that grammar rule is taught deductively. This means that the pupils atomic number 18 taught well-nigh the grammar rule and then they take over to apply to the r efreshful examples. It is important for the pupils to learn about the grammar rule of the language. This leave behind make them use and apply the language better. They can less(prenominal)en their mistake when they know about the grammar rule. They as well as lead be able to explain about the grammar rule of certain wrangling when they deliver the knowledge.Next, translation is the easiest and shortest way to view English. This is because closely primary school children do non familiar with this language. They can sole(prenominal) key their mystify expression. So, by teaching English employ the sire expression, the pupils fill in to catch up with their study better. Translation is needed to teach the children. The usage of mother tongue is very important for the pupils in breeding English in the early year. This is to make them recognize better. For example, if we call on the carpet development English during lesson, the pupils whitethorn non be able to underst and a single issue during the lesson. By utilise the mother tongue during the lesson, the pupils as well as do not father any problem in discernment and responding to the instructor. So, there is interaction happen in the classroom. The communication in the midst of the pupils and the instructor does not cause any problem. Translation is very important fraction in instruction English for these children. The other advantage is the pupils have been introduced to the literary works texts during the early years of their study. It is a good sign that the pupils learn about literature during the lesson. When they have learnt about the literature texts, they manage to attend the literary passages well based on their experience during the breeding process in the class. They can show their understanding in literature by managing to interpret the literary texts.There ar similarly disadvantages of this method. The first disadvantage is less participation from the pupils. This m ethod is teacher-oriented. The teacher has the full authority to control the class. So, the inputs of the learning argon given by the teacher from the beginning of the lesson until the end. The pupils job in the class is to hear to the teachers instruction without questioning any topic. They are like silent learners. There is no discussion or sharing opinion occurs during the lesson. As a result, the pupils cognitive skill and critical and creative thinking get out not develop. not only that, the teacher also is the one to watch whether the pupils answers are correct or not. If the pupils do not manage to get the correct answers, the teacher allow for give the correct answers to the pupils. The teacher does not even try to give the pupils another chance to answer to the questions. They leave behind not become autonomous learner. This is one of the teacher-centred methods in the learning process. These skills are required for the pupils to develop so that they will be able to un derstand their learning better and manage to do well in their study. Not only that, the other disadvantage is little or no affright given to the spill the beansing skill. According to Brown (2001), it does virtually nothing to prove a students communication ability in the language. This is because they only do the variant and physical composition during the class. The pupils are not unfastened to any other skills in learning like listening, enunciateing and writing. These skills are decisive for the pupils in their learning. By learning a lesson with these skills, they will be able to understand the lesson and manage to complete all the works given by the teacher. If this situation interminably happens, it will promote to the boredom to the pupils. This is because they keep on doing the same thing during the lesson. Primary school children always like to have free rein and doing fun things. When they are doing the same thing during the lesson, the design for them to extr act from the lesson is higher. As a result, the lesson process will not progress well. The disturbance that occurs will hinder the learning process. They will also disrupt other students who wanted to learn. anyhow that, the teaching victimisation this method is against the natural way of learning a language. The natural order of learning a language is listening, let the cat out of the baging, reading and writing (Purwarno Hadinata, 2006). Through this method the pupils are to ask to read texts and literature texts during the lesson. This method is unnatural method. Even though the primary school children want to learn about their mother tongue language while they were young, they still have to listen to the other peoples words before they can speak out the words. It is hard for them to learn about English which is not their mother tongue through reading. They will not understand the sentences or words through reading. The lowest disadvantage of grammatical translation method is much verbiage is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. The teacher gives the meaning of single words instead of the meaning of the sentences or phrases. For example, the teacher gives the meaning of the word blissful in the mother tongue. The pupils only know the meaning of the word golden. There are also other words that related to the word happy like happiness, happily and many more. When reading sentences that have the word happiness, the pupils may become confused. This is because they only know the meaning of the word happy.This method is relevant for the rural area pupils. This is because using this method the teacher does not has to use any high-tech teaching aids. High-tech teaching aids such(prenominal) as LCD (liquid crystal display) projector can be quite irritating sometimes. The teacher just has to use the textbooks as the main resource in the classroom. Furthermore, in rural area, the high-tech teaching aids are seldom found there. Sometimes, the electri city resource is not enough for them. There are some places in rural areas that do not have weewee and electricity resources. So, textbooks are the important resources in the classroom. new(prenominal) than that, the target language is gived into the mother tongue. So, the rural area pupils will be able to understand English well when the words are translated. This is because many of them do not capable in understand and using English. They are not exposed to this language since they were little. When they entered school, they have to learn about this language as a punt language and they are very new to this language. Translation using the mother tongue is very essential for them. This can build their engagement towards the language. Even though they begin it hard learning English for the first time, as the time goes by the interest towards the English language will be developed. Since this method is teacher-centred, the pupils can depend on the teacher to learn English. They have no one to teach them English at post compared to the pupils who live in the urban area.The other approach is community language learning. This method is also known as counselling-learning. Basically, community language learning is based on the student-centred. The pupils will become autonomous learners. In this method, teacher acts as the counsellor while the pupils as the clients. The pupils are asked to sit in a close group of six to ten persons. They have talk about anything they like and the teacher has to be outside the circle. The pupils also have the chance to choose their own topic. They are given the time to brainstorm the ideas. The most important thing is their discussion will be recorded. as well that, during the discussion, the pupils can also talk using their mother tongue and the teacher will translate for them the actual sentences. At this point, the pupils are trustworthy for their own learning. They have to be more positive(p) to have the communion among the members in the group. The recorded conversation will be shown to the pupils in order to meliorate their abilities in the English language. Even though this is student-centred approach, the teacher plays a vital role in this method. Teacher plays the role as he facilitator and guider for the pupils during their learning process. The second advantage is it will boost the pupils speaking and listening skills. When the pupils use this method for the first time, they may pure tone a bit of inclemency during the conversation. When they are used to this method, the relishing of awkwardness will disappear. They will reveal this method enjoyable and fun. This is because the topic is not specific by the teacher. The pupils have the freedom to choose the topic for themselves. Thus, their speaking and listening skills will be improved. They will be able to use the language without any worry. They are not afraid to make mistakes when speaking. As a result, they have the confident in us ing the language.The other advantage of this method is encourage teachers to examine their students as whole persons, where their musical notes, intellect, interpersonal relationships, protective reactions, and desired to learn are addressed and balanced (English Raven Educational Services 2007). This method is also a part of humanistic approach in the language learning. This is because it will help the teacher to understand their pupils emotions or feelings. When the teacher is able to understand the pupils feelings, the teacher will be able to help them in their learning. It also encourages the teacher to know more about their pupils. So, the teacher is capable to receive the pupils needs in their learning. The pupils learning process will run smoothly. The last advantage is it will enhance the relationship between teacher and pupils. According to Joyce, Calhoun and Hopkins (2002), this model emphasizes the partnership between students and teachers. The teacher will help the pu pils to translate the sentences that the pupils produced in their mother tongue. This is because the pupils will seek for their teachers help whenever they need the help. So, the teacher will always ready to help the pupils outside the circle. The relationship between the teacher and pupils will become closer. It can also decrease the pupils anxiety while doing the conversation in the group. This is because they manage to build trust among themselves. They are able to support each other during the conversation. Teacher can also help the pupils to overcome their negative feeling towards English by bend them into positive energy to further their learning. Teacher can encourage the pupils to speak English. The teacher can also praise the pupils when they manage to speak English during the conversation. This will motivate them to learn about English. In the class, teacher is responsible to correct the pupils when they make mistakes. Teacher should be able to comfort the pupils during t he conversation. Then, the fear of learning English by the pupils will disappear slowly.There are also disadvantages in this method. Firstly, this method is time consuming. A circulate of time is needed for this method to be progressed victoriously. The teacher should be more longanimous while using this method. The teacher has to give more time for the pupils on their learning process. Sometimes, the learning process will be delayed. In addition, not all pupils will be able to participate in the conversation at a time. Only a few pupils will be participating. The teacher has to follow the time that has been allocated during the lesson. If the learning process has delayed, the teacher has to find some other time to brood with the session. If this method requires a lot of time, the pupils will feel bored when they do not capable to train the language. This will lead to frustration to the pupils. Thus, they will lose the interest in learning English as the second language and ten d to withdraw themselves from the conversation. Furthermore, it is very hard for the teacher to translate certain sentences for the pupils. This is because there are some classes which have multiracial pupils. They also use different mother tongue language. So, the teacher will find it hard for them. The teacher may not be able to understand every pupil in the class. There are also a few teachers that are not really capable in using the English language. As they continue using this method it will also lead to frustration to the teachers. The teacher may not be able to help the pupils in their English. So, in order for the teacher to be able to help the pupils, the teacher should be fluent in the mother tongue language and also English.Other than that, some of the pupils do not have the confidence is speaking in English. So they may use a lot of mother tongue in the conversation. This will not improve their English as second language. They are afraid to try to speak in English. They will feel embarrass when their friends laugh at them if they make mistakes. Some pupils may feel rather passive and will not volunteer to speak anything. This is because they have to depend on themselves during the conversation. The teacher will serve as a facilitator and will monitor them during the conversation. They will also feel embarrass when they hear the recorded tape. Some of the pupils may not be able to speak fluently when they know that they are be recorded. They will lose the feeling of security learning English. Even though this method is non-threatening, some of the pupils may find this method threatening. This is when they are not capable to acquire the target language. They may have low self-esteem in using the language. The tendency for them not to speak in English during the conversation may be higher. This is because they have to be responsible for their own learning. They have to depend on themselves and the other members in the group. When they are not able to speak using the target language, they will have the feeling of frustration in themselves.This approach is relevant to the secondary school and tertiary level teaching. This is because this is student-centred approach. They should be able to be responsible towards their learning. They are able to think about the thing that will benefit them. By using this method in learning, the students will be able to become autonomous learner. This is because the current Malaysian education system encourages the students to find their own way of learning. They should not depend on the lecturers that teach them. They have to find other alternatives in their learning. So, by using this method, the students will be able to achieve the aspiration of the current education system. They will also enhance their speaking and listening skills. The order of learning a language is by learning listening and speaking skills first. If they are able to listen to teacher well, they will be able to speak English well. Hence, they will have the confidence in using the target language everywhere.In conclusion, both methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. It depends on how it is being used in the school. In order to make this method successful in the class, teacher and the administration of the school play an essential role.

Health Promotion Activity for HIV

wellness Promotion Activity for human immunodeficiency virus wellness forward motion about face lifting aw beness of Human Immunodeficiency Syndrome (human immunodeficiency virus). Group members Grace Gaisey, Ethel Onyewuotu, Isabelle Bialan, bathroom Daramewa, Nana Sarpong- Mensah and Peace Uzoma.IntroductionThis essay highlights assessing, planning, implementing and the evaluation of a wellness furtherance operation on human immunodeficiency virus.The World wellness Organisation (WHO), 2013) defines human immunodeficiency virus as a computer virus which infects the cells in the immune system by destroying its operate on to a stage that transmittals may begin to occur as a result of weakening the immune system.Assessment of wellness NeedHealth postu new-fashioned sagacity is an efficient method in reviewing wellness looses involving a population which leads to approved priorities and allocation of resources that facilitate in the amelioration of wellness and redu ce inequalities ( subject area instal for Health and Cargon Excellence (NICE), 2009).This is beneficial as it contributes to the description patterns of complaint in a local population and the differences from opposite location, such as districts, regional or national disease patterns such as human immunodeficiency virus as it is a pandemic disease (National aid Trust (NAT), 2014), and creates the opportunity in learning more about the involve and priorities of the local population to provide the objectives rented to work towards meeting those needs (Wright, Wilkinson and Williams, 2009).Epidemiology and demographic statisticsNaidoo and Wills (2009) defined epidemiology as the study of occurrence and spread of disease in a population. Demography on the former(a) hand is the size, patch and the distribution of human populations and their changes resulting from fertility and mortality (Dudley, Poston Bouvier, 2010).human immunodeficiency virus is a patrimonial disease with a lmost 75 one thousand thousand heap septic with the virus worldwide, with data trends indicating it has gaind as 36 million populate were live with HIV by the end of 2012 (WHO, 2014). It has also been estimated that the 75 million infected with HIV caught the virus by means of transmission, such as knowledge competent intercourse and mother to child transmission (WHO, 2013).For instance, it has been estimated that 5.1 million of children worldwide throw away been infected with HIV with mother to child transmission (NAT, 2013). Thus, earliest infant diagnosis is being scaled up in nearly countries, but in 2011 only 35% of the infants born to mothers living with HIV received HIV test and has been increase by 46% amongst 2010 and 2012 from 2.4 million to 3.5million (WHO, 2013).The demographic statistics from data trends indicates that, about 36 million plenty have died of HIV globally since 2012 compargond to 30.3 million masses in 2001 which shows an increase of 17% (WH O, 2014). Although the mortality among the population ar infants aged 1-5 years and has increased with 3.34 million (NAT, 2013). HIV causes mortality among adults, however, according to estimates by WHO (2013), infants who has HIV are more likely to die between the ages of 1 and 5 years, respectively, with 2.3 million dying as a result while adults have the likelihood of dying between 15 and 60 years.Target meetingThe rump group for this HP activity is 15-24 years as statistics shown by the common Health England (PHE) (2013) indicate young people under 25 are more at risk of contracting HIV with a meridian age of women between 15-20 years and 20-24 for men. This has been indicated as a commonplace health solvent in many countries as 40% of untested HIV infections are seen among 15 to 24 year olds (PHE, 2013).WHO (2013) further corresponded stating, half of the 75 million people infected with HIV in the world are young women aged 15 to 20 years, accounting for all new infe ctions, and there is a growing recognition that these women and girls with HIV infection is wrought by gender inequalities and violence against them.Behavioral aspects that might affect this health issue. tally to the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (2014), behavioral aspects that poop affect the risk of HIV includes individual sexuality and self-esteem. For instance, investigate indicates that most ongoing risk behaviour for HIV transmission has been set forth for men who have sex with men (MSM) (NAT, 2014). It has also been estimated that, 10 million people of MSM are living with HIV globally and in 41,100 in the UK in 2012 which has been increasing in the recent years, making commonplace health experts have concerns about the rising rate among MSM (NAT, 2014).PoliciesIn 2013, World Health Organisation published a global polity in which they provided recommendations on HIV examination and counselling. They estimated that about 20 million adolescents age d 10-24 years are living with HIV worldwide with half of them unaware of their infection. This policy heads at giving a high priority to enhance access code shot to HIV scrutiny and counselling globally, which is beneficial as it involve the improvement of health and is appropriate for the HP activity as advising people on HIV testing and offering counselling gives the opportunity to parcel out, treatment and foul for people and permit them to know their status (British HIV Association, 2014).In addition, the policy also sketch the need for giving sufficient information on HIV awareness and an early diagnosis and treatment as it crumb reduce the progression and the prevention of HIV transmission. Thus, the WHO (2013) corresponded by recommending that HIV testing and counselling should be offered in global hospitals as this will financial aid the diagnosis and management of the infection.In the UK, the NAT (2012) provides a policy base on HIV prevention and its aim is to p romote health of the UK population with a prevention of an HIV test action plan to reduce late diagnosis of HIV in the UK. This is a relevant policy as HIV has become a generalised epidemic in the UK that affects the health and well being of enormous people from all social classes (NAT, 2014). HIV is non only a health issue, but also a contractmental issue that affects the social, cultural, political and the economics of the country (British HIV Association, 2014) as it is associated with serious morbidity that includes a high cost of treatment and palm (PHE, 2013).The initiative of this policy is to facilitate an increase in HIV testing in all healthcare settings in order to reduce the counterbalance of individuals who are unaware of their HIV infection with the motive of benefitting the individual and the unrestricted health. This is vital as maintaining focus on increasing regular HIV testing is a key component of the prevention and care of the people in raising the awarenes s of HIV of the people in the UK. As a result, the UK national guidelines for HIV testing from the British HIV Association, (2008) recommends that an HIV test should be offered to all newly registering patients in general confide and general hospital admissions and promote the awareness of HIV which will assist in reducing late diagnosis of HIV.Type of needsAccording to NICE (2008), an understanding of the assessment of health needs requires a definition of need which indicates the capacity of a benefit from an intervention. Bradshaw (1972) suggests there are quartet dimensions of need however, the Bradshaw need chosen was the normative need as it is based on professional judgement (Coles Porter, 2008). It creates the need for professionals to identify standard requirements (Gruen Black, 2006). For instance, the WHO (2013) recommended that HIV testing should be offered in global hospitals. This indicates a health need as data indicates that most people are unaware of their infec tion (NAT, 2013).ApproachEwles and Simnett (2003) role manakin comprises of five approaches to health progress which consists of medical approach, behavioral change approach, educational approach, societal change approach and client-centred approach. Thus, the educational approach was chosen as having an educational approach in health progress offers individual information to ascertain health benefits for themselves (Ewles and Simnett, 2003). The health belief model is seen to be the most common theory utilise in health promotion, providing the benefits of educational approach (Glanz, Rimer Viswanath, 2008). The model is essential for addressing problem behaviours that sexs health concerns (Black, mortarboard Keene, 2006). For example, high risk of sexual behaviour and the possibility of contracting HIV, this is an realization of individual behaviours. Willz (2007) further suggested that health professionals need to be mindful of this model so as to en adequate to(p) them i n educating and promoting health in individuals from mixed cultural and ethnic groups.The strength of the educational approach is based on the fact that it permits people to make an informed decision about their health by providing knowledge and information to different cultural and ethnic groups which the health belief model corresponds to. However, Naidoo and Wills (2009) further explain that the educational approach differs from the other approaches as it does not use reinforcement to achieve its aim which is a limitation. The magnificent College of Nursing (2011) corresponded with this view advocating that the role of the go down on is to inform and not persuade.Aims and ObjectivesThe group had aims and objectives to ensure everyone recognizes what needs to be achieved. For that reason, the group identified the aim as raising awareness for HIV and with the objectives that comprises participants will be able to identify the main differences between HIV and AIDS, identify the sy mptoms of HIV and the safest pick to fight off the menace, able to understand three risk factors of transfer HIV and identify three places to access information on HIV. military rankStufflebeam and Shinkfield (2007) explained health promotion evaluation as a process that is touch on with assessing health related activity against the goals in a way that results and contributes to incoming decision making. In addition, Black, Hawks Keene (2006) further stated that evaluation is made so as to determine if aims and objectives have been met and determine the efficiency of the methods used. This is vital as without evaluation, the idea of if objectives are met would not be known and also problems and impuissance encountered would not be seen to rectify.Thorogood and Coombes (2010) states there are three stages of evaluation in health promotion this includes process, impact and government issue.In the process of the health promotion activity, the group utilised a method of approach s o as to achieve the aims and objectives. Thus, the educational approach was chosen as the group used educational materials such as appendage model as an good example on safe use of condom, posters which were authorise and easy to read, distributed leaflets to assist in expanding the knowledge of the participants on HIV awareness as Linsley, Kane and Owen (2011) states, good spirit health information leaflets assist individuals to make informed choices about their health.In addition, Health belief model (1974) suggests that, people need to have some kind of knowledge, such as information given to them through leaflets and posters to wages actions in changing their behaviour or make a health related decision.The interactions that took place during the health promotion(HP) activity was done through raising awareness of HIV to our chump group by explaining and discussing the health issue with the participants and after giving a questionnaire for them to answer to enable the group get ahead information on as to whether the objectives has been met.The impact evaluation involves in assessing the activity in regards of the aims and objectives set by the group. Naidoo and Wills (2008) state that the impact evaluation is the present(prenominal) effect the health promotion have on people. Essentially, this refers to the measurement of what has been achieved by the group.The questionnaire given to the participants were analysed by the group which indicated that 87% in 27 people tick the right answer and 3 people in 13% had the wrong answer. From the evaluation carried out, 13% of the participants answered the questionnaire wrongly because it was distributed to them before explaining what the health issue was about. Out of the 30 questions set, only 3 participants had it wrong, which means the group was able to expand the knowledge of the participants and their understanding on HIV.Green and Kreuter (2008) explained outcome evaluation measures as the long term effec ts of HP activity and whether it has achieved its goals. The outcome effect of the HP activity will be difficult for the group to identify as it there will be a travel along up which will be difficult to contact participants again.There are some improvements that could have been made to improve the HP activity. Hence, demonstration of the penis model should be kept in a discreet sentiment and not visible to the audience so as to not be seen as offensive to others. In addition, the standing poster should be clear and group members must ensure it is not blocked from the audience whiles interacting with them.Royal College of nursing (2007) states health promoters are in the contribution to improving the health of the earthly concern. Thus, their role as a health promoter is to plan and develop ways that assist people improve and manage their health. Linsley, Kane and Owen (2011) further corresponded dictum health promoters must have an evidence-based understanding of the important effects that understructure be made through health promotion interventions and communicating with people to develop their awareness of activities leading to better health and become knowing about their own health status which will improve the boilers suit health population.The HP activity on raising awareness on HIV could be carried out in Gum clinics within the target group of 15- 24 years. According to French (2009), people can go to gum clinics no matter their age. As stated by the RCN (2012), nurses are health promoters and in an ideal position to influence the people they interact with in order to empower positive health outcomes. Thus, the role of the nurse as a health promoter is to provide advice and support through one to one interventions with clients to improve their sexual health (French, 2009). The nurse can also implement guidance on prevention and risk diminution support of HIV to clients by providing relevant information, leaflets and condoms so as to raise their awareness on HIV.ConclusionThis essay has outlined a health promotion activity based on raising awareness of HIV, with a health need assessments and target population identified. The essay has also outlined epidemiology and the demographic trends associated with health policies that govern it. The writer also identified the approaches and the aims and objectives with an evaluation of the effectiveness of the health promotion activity and the role of the health promoter.ReferencesBradshaw ref.Black, M., Hawks H., Keene, M. (2006).Evaluation in health promotion.6th (ed). Philadelphia Elsevier Mosby.British HIV Association.(2014). UK National Guideline for HIV Testing. capital of the coupled domain BHIVA.Coles, L. Porter, E. (2008). Public health skills. A practical guide for nurses and publich health practitioners. Oxford Blackwell.Croyle, R. T. (2005). possibleness at a Glance Application to Health Promotion and Health Behaviour. 2nd (ed). Department of Health and Human Services , National Institutes of Health. Available at www.thecommunityguide.org.Dudley. L., Poston, J. Bouvier, F. (2010). Population and society. An introduction to demography. New York Cambridge University Press.Ewles,L. Simnett, I. (2003).Promoting Health -A Practical Guide. 5th (ed). Edinburgh Bailliere Tindall.French, K. (2009). familiar Health. Chichester Blackwell Publication.Glanz, K., Rimer. B., Viswanath, K. (2008).Health behaviour and health education. 4th (ed). San Francisco J. Wiley.Green, L.W. Kreuter, M.W. (2008).Health promotion planning an educational and environmental approach. Mountain View, CA Mayfield.Gruen, R. Black, N. (2006). Understanding health services. Berkshire Open university press.Linsley, P., Kane. R., and Owen, S. (2011). Nursing for public health promotion, principles and practice. Oxford Oxford university press.National Aids Trust.(2012). HIV testing, action plan. capital of the United Kingdom NAT.National Aids Trust.(2014). Men who have sex with men (MSM). London NAT.Naidoo,J. and Wills, J. (2009). Foundations for Health Promotion. Edinburgh Bailliere Tindall Elsevier.Naidoo, J. Wills, J. (2008).Health Promotion Foundations for Practice. London BailliereTindall.Public Health England. (2013). HIV in the United Kingdom 2013 report. London PHE.Public Health England. (2013). HIV in the UK 2013 Report. London PHE.Royal College of Nursing. (2011). Informed consent in health and social care research RCN guidance for nurses. 2nd (ed). London RCN.Royal College of Nursing. (2012). Nurses contribution to public health prevents, promote and protect. London RCN.Royal College of Nursing. (2007). Nurses as partners in delivering public health. London RCN.Thorogood, M. Coombes, Y. (2010). Evaluating Health Promotion. (3rd ed.). Oxford Oxford university press.Wills, J. (2007).Promoting Health. Oxford Blackwell.World Health Organisation. (2013). Global update on HIV treatment Result, impacts and opportunities. Geneva WHO.World Health Organisa tion. (2013). HIV and adolescents guidance for HIV testing and counselling and care for adolescents living with HIV. Geneva WHO.Wright. J., Wilkinson, R. J., Williams. R. (2009). festering and importance of health needs assessment. British medical journal, 316(7140), 1310- 1313.United Kingdom National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2009). Health needs assessment A practical guide. London NICE.United Kingdom National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2008). Health needs assessment at a glance. London NICE.

Herbal Medicines: Helpful Aids or Harmful Injuries

herb tea tea tea tea Medicines Helpful Aids or Harmful InjuriesAnna PhamAbstract disdain using countersinks for healthful pur arrests for every location 5,000 years, non much is known approximately the efficacy, mechanism, or natural rubber of herbs pharmacological activity. Although herbal medicates ar non a new threat, they atomic number 18 becoming an increasing concern repayable to their increment popularity around the world.IntroductionUse of traditional c atomic number 18 for has expanded globally and has gained popularity. Not only is it use for primary health c be of the unworthy in developing countries, it is also used in countries where naturalized medicine is predominant in the national health care system. Three quarter of the world population is estimated to rely on herbal and traditional medicine as a basis for primary health care1. With this increase in popularity, an awareness of the efficacy, gauge control, and recourse of herbal medicines switc h puzzle of the essence(p) concerns.Plants have been recorded as being used for healthful purposes over 5,000 years2. For roughly of history, herbal medicine was the only treatment. As early as 1890, 59% of the listings in the US Pharmacopeia were from herbal products, and it is estimated that one trey to one half of currently used medicines were derived from plants1. Today, thousands of herbal products are for sale over the counter and are grossly used by patients globally. customary dissatisfaction with the cost of ethical drug medications, combined with an interest in returning to internal or innate remedies, has led to an increase in herbal medicine consumption1. This is percentageicularly true in individuals with chronic or incurable diseases. Herbal medicines are not a new threat, but they are an meaning(a) and misconstrue threat.According to the World Health Organization, an herb is any potpourri of a plant or plant product, including leaves, flowers, fruit, seed, stems, roots, and seeds2. These plants erect either be sold raw or as extracts, where the plant is softened with water, alcohol, or another(prenominal) solvents to extract some of the chemics. The resulting products turn back dozens of chemicals, including fatty acids, sterols, flavonoids, alkaloids, and glycosides3. capabilitygenus genus genus genus Echinacea plant is widely used primarily for treatment of the customary cold. Assessing the effectiveness of divergent Echinacea preparations is complicated because of the some(prenominal) another(prenominal) extraneous variables. at that place are three different species of Echinacea in medical use, which overwhelm Echinacea purpurea, Echinacea pallida, and Echinacea angustifolia4. As well, not only are different parts of the plant are used (root, herb, flower, or completely plant), different methods of extraction are used. Lastly, other plant extracts or homeopathic components are added in some preparations. Making co mparisons and pooling entropy of different preparations of Echinacea is methodologically questionable, so interpreting the plants effectiveness ineluctably caution due to the heterogeneity of the preparations.Furtherto a greater extent, the call for mechanisms of action for the immunomodulating effects of Echinacea preparations are unclear. at that place are four classes of compounds that are known to contribute to the immunomodulatory activity of Echinacea extracts alkamides, glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and caffeic acid derivatives4. Different concentrations of different compounds are found in the three species of Echinacea. Subsequently, the pharmacologic effects associated with the elements in Echinacea may result from self-directed or synergistic actions with undivided or multiple elements. As well, heretofore if Echinacea extracts and constituents have demonstrated pharmacological activities in discordant biological assays, there is no induction-based conceptua l framework to explain how Echinacea mogul effectively pr horizontalt or treat acute respiratory infections4.Karsch-Volk et al. investigated in a systemic review the effectiveness of different Echinacea preparations for preventing and treating common colds or induced rhinovirus infections4. Different preparations were compared to a placebo in twenty-four double-blind randomize control trials with 4631 participants. It was not possible to apply a sample explanation of the common cold across the trials, so the participants included in this larn were individuals with non- unique(predicate) viral upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) with a clinical diagnosing of common cold, influenza-like syndrome, or viral URTI volunteers without acute URTIs but treated for safety purposes or volunteers without acute URTIs but challenged with rhinovirus treated for preventative and/or remedy purposes. The enquiryers only included trials of oral Echinacea with one preparation versus a plac ebo and excluded trials of crews of Echinacea with other herbs and trials comparing Echinacea with no treatment or a treatment other than placebo. A large proportion of the preparations used in the trials were pressed juices (stabilized with alcohol), alcohol tinctures or tablets made from dried extracts.The heterogeneity of the preparations tested did not allow a virile conclusion. The different preparations of Echinacea contained different amounts of bioactive components therefore, the different preparations were not comparable. Karsch-Volk et al did conclude that some Echinacea products were more effective than a placebo for treating the common cold, but the overall express for clinically relevant treatment effects was weak. In general, Echinacea preventing colds did not confront statistically significant reductions in illness occurrence however, closely all prevention trials suggested small preventative effects. Studies investigating the effects of herbs cannot adjourn str ong conclusions unless heterogeneity and reproducibility are controlled.RegulationHerbal medicines are often promoted as natural and therefore harmless however, these remedies are not free from unseemly effects. Much of the joined States botanical industrys products are unauthorized and are not required to demonstrate efficacy, quality, or safety1. Lack of standard and loose distribution channels may attribute to poor quality of herbal products which will result in adverse reactions. Regulation is grueling since different cultures in different regions of the world have developed various practices of traditional medicine without a parallel international standard and take over method for evaluating traditional medicine.SafetyPharmacologically Active Ingredients Natural products contain pharmacologically active molecules which can dominancely cause danger to gentle health. Examples of nephrotoxicity associated with herbal use include the hepatotoxicity due to pyrrolizidine alka loids-containing plants, acting by a characteristic veno-occlusive disease that may be rapidly state-of-the-art and fatal, Aconitum poisoning due to Aconitum alkaloids, which are highly toxic cardiotoxins and neurotoxins, and the severe and lethal cardiovascular side effects associated with Ephedra sinica6. However, other studies have clear shown that adverse events due to herbal remedies are relatively infrequent if assessed for causativeity and that although the number of severe clinical reactions was small, fatalities have been described7.The purpose of this review was to collect unattached selective information on the following (i) adverse effects observed in humans from the intake ofplant food supplements or botanical preparations (ii) the misidentification of poisonous plants and (iii) fundamental interactions surrounded by plantfood supplements/botanicals and conventional drugs or nutrients.ContaminationBiological contamination and chemical contamination of medicinal herbs and herbal products are very common. Impurities in medicinal herbs and their preparations and products refer to biological contamination8. They may involve living microbes such as bacteria and their spores, yeasts and molds, viruses, protozoa, insects (their testicle and larvae), and other organisms. Microbial contamination of herbs may result from improper intervention during production and packaging. Sources of contamination are microbes from the ground and processing facilities (contaminated air, microbes of human origin). surmount contamination is also a possibility from extraneous materials such as glass, plastic, and other materials which contact the herbs, herbal preparations, or products. Human excrement, animal muck up and feces used as fertilizers are other sources of biological contamination. As well, contamination of herbs with bacterial strains resistant to known antibiotics poses human health risks and infection. Additionally, because molds are widespread in t he atmosphere, they are a natural contaminant of medicinal herbs. Molds are potent allergens and producers of mycotoxins. Products of microbial metabolism, such as toxic, low-molecular-weight metabolites from molds, are chemical contaminants. Furthermore, herbal products can be contaminated by heavy metals and pesticides as well.DrugInteractionsCase reports, case series, and pharmacokinetic trials have highlighted that herbal medicines can interact with prescribed medicines6. Interactions can have either a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics basis or both, and herbal medicines may interact with prescribed drugs at the intestine, liver, kidneys, and targets of action. Herbal remedies confused in drug interactions have been shown to up-regulate or down-regulate cytochrome P450s and/or P-glycoprotein6. The roles of drug transporters, including the organic anion and cation transporters and the nuclear pregnane-X receptor, are apparent9. However, most of the evidence for herb-drug inte ractions come from case reports therefore, it is trying to establish a cause and effect relationship.Izzo reviewed the clinical data regarding the interactions between herbal remedies and prescribed drugs. Since herbal medicines are a mixture of more than one bioactive ingredient, such combinations of many substances increase the likelihood of interactions taking place therefore, theoretically, the likelihood of herb-to-drug interactions is higher than drug-to-drug interactions, if only because synthetic drugs usually contain single chemical entitities10. Therefore, it is hard to rule out what causes the interaction. The review investigated the clinical data for 27 herbal remedies known to interact with conventional medicines, such as Aloe vera, Echinacea, and St Johns Wort.Also examined in the review were characteristics of the patient. Age, frailty, infrequent genotypes, ethnicity, gender, and comorbidity should be accounted for when considering herb-to-drug interactions. This i s important since polymorphisms in the genes for drug-metabolizing enzymes or transporters may influence herb-to-drug interactions. As well, the concomitant use of prescription medications and herbal products by older adults is a common situation in western countries10. Since older adults typically have multiple health problems, they are at particular risk for herb-to-drug interactions. Despite this gravity, clinical studies investigating the potential of drug interactions in elderly patients are rare. Additionally, it is well established that the pharmacokinetics of many drugs vary between men and women. Gender differences in herb-to-drug interactions have been report both experimentally and in clinical trials10.Izzos review clause had many limitations. Only clinical reports were considered, and preclinical studies, including human in vitro experiments, were excluded. This and other unpublished articles could lead to underestimation. As well, most of the evidence on herb-to-drug in teractions discussed in the article was based on case reports, which are sometimes incomplete and do not allow inferences for a causal relationship. However, it should be noted that even documented case reports can never establish a causal relationship between drug administration and an adverse event since there are so many extraneous variables. Also, the extract type, standardization of extract, part of the plant used and the scientific name of the plant were not contract in the papers reviewed. This is important because preparations obtained from the same plant may have different chemical compositions and therefore different biological actions, as antecedently highlighted. This leads to skepticism as to what causes the adverse effects. Furthermore, herbal preparations are not undefendable to the same regulations as prescription drugs, so the content of active ingredients may vary among manufacturers, potentially causing a large variation in efficacy and safety. The under-regula ted quality of herbal medicines is another limitation and safety moment since contamination or adulteration of herbal medicines, including adulteration with synthetic drugs, may cause drug interactions. Therefore, a contaminant/adulterant, and not an herbal ingredient, can theoretically cause the drug interactions. Lastly, it is difficult to identify most herb-to-drug interactions because many countries do not have a central mechanism for mandatory reporting, and many people conceal their use of herbal medicines to their physicians or pharmacists, accept that herbal products are natural and therefore safe10.Izzo concluded that clinical reports clearly indicate that herbal medicines can interact with conventional drugs. While most of these interactions have a negligible clinical significance, some may pose a serious threat to public health. Herbal medicines may be used by patients concomitantly receiving conventional drugs, which can result in misunderstood adverse events.FutureDi rectionsImportant changes to the regulation of herbs are needed to remedy the safety and appropriate use of herbal products. These include requiring manufacturers to register with the FDA, requiring safety tests like those required for over-the-counter drugs, requiring all health claims to be back up by data approved by the FDA, and ensuring that product labels provide an surgical list of all ingredients1. These changes will help the safety of herbal products, but additional changes are needed to improve and promote high-quality research. Defining specific standards for herbal products to ensure consistency between studies is critical. Once a well-established standard of the chemical fingerprint exists for herbs, the formulation of the herbal product can become clear.Additionally, symptoms of illnesses are subjective. Operational definitions need to be addressed to make strong comparisons. Ideally, a robust study design would be able to show all preparations of a plant showing ei ther positive or negative effects.Because of the current regulatory structure and limited available data on safety and efficacy, there is high risk using herbal medicine, including severe side effects from pharmacologically active ingredients, contaminants, or drug interactions. On the other hand, the benefits using herbal medicine lack evidence or have inappropriate evidence, so more high-quality research needs to be conducted, especially regarding high-risk patients such as older adults. culmination/SummaryAssessing the efficacy, quality, and safety of herbal medicines is problematic because of inadequate or inconsistent study methods being used. Herbal research should be conducted with the same punctilious care as any other medical research, and all herbal products administered to patients should ideally be chemically characterized, standardized, and of known quality. Extraneous variables from different herbal preparations do not allow for generalizations about the efficacy and safety of herbal remedies, and findings of clinical studies must be interpreted cautiously because many studies were performed without fitted rigor and recorded detail.Additionally, the current regulation of herbs does not ensure that available products are safe, and false and illegal marketing claims are common. Changes to the regulation of herbal products could dramatically improve the appropriate use of herbs. High quality research in this field is needed to firmly establish the efficacy and safety of many herbal products.The biggest threat regarding herbal medicines is that it continues to be misunderstood. It is unknown which exact chemical, or combination of chemicals, in an herb produces a biological effect. Hence, it is difficult to create the ideal herbal product that is precise, controlled, and standardized. Also, it is not known if a single chemical component of the herb or the synergistic combination of chemicals in the plant would produce the desired effect. Which cons tituent of the herb produces an herb-to-drug interaction is not understood either, allowing for adverse reactions. These ambiguous fallouts result from the many different preparations of herbal products. Standardized, robust study designs are required to address the uncertainty of these findings.ReferencesEfferth T, Kaina B. Toxicities by Herbal Medicines with Emphasis to conventional Chinese Medicine United States, 2011.World Health Organization. General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicine Geneva, 2000.Rotblatt M, Ziment I. Evidence-based herbal medicine. Philadelphia, PA Hanley Belfus 2002.Karsch-Vlk M, Barrett B, Kiefer D, Bauer R, Ardjomand-Woelkart K, Linde K. 2014. Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2 CD000530.Gauthier S, Schlaefke S. 2014. Efficacy and tolerability of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 in dementia a self-opinionated review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-control led trials. Clin Interv Aging 9 2065-77.Izzo A, Hoon-Kim S, Radhakrishnan R, Williamson EM. A Critical advent to Evaluating Clinical Efficacy, Adverse Events and Drug Interactions of Herbal Remedies 2016.Di Lorenzo C, Ceschi A, Kupferschmidt H, et al. 2015. Adverse effects of plant food supplements and botanical preparations a systematic review with critical military rating of causality. Br J Clin Pharmacol 79 578-92.Kosalec I, Cvek J, and Tomic S. Contaminants of medicinal herbs and herbal products Croatia, 2009.Cho HJ, Yoon IS. 2015. Pharmacokinetic interactions of herbs with cytochrome p450 and p-glycoprotein. Evid Based escort Alternat Med 2015 736431.Izzo AA. 2012. Interactions between herbs and conventional drugs overview of the clinical data. Med Princ Prac 21 404-28.

Marriage proposals in Pride and Prejudice Essay

Marriage marriage proposals in preen and Prejudice EssayThe three proposals in self-conceit and Prejudice to Elizabeth Bennet, or Lizzy, vary greatly in their motivation. They ar all involving the upper middle class of the 19th century that Jane Austen had cognition of. Jane Austen never married, and you layabout see the benevolent of person she would have desire to be in Elizabeth. Jane Austen read such defends as Mary Wolstencrafts The Rights of Women, and although she does non go as far to criticise womens status, most of her have gots are nigh their place in society this novel being no exception. Pride and Prejudice is about marriage and manners in country society, that women treasured to marry into good fortune, and rich men wanted to marry elegant women. The first sentence in the book sums up the attitude verbalized in this book well It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, mustiness be in want of a wife.Marriag es in the period in time this book is based, between the upper middle classes, were often practical. The women necessary security for future life, the men wanted children to continue there family and this was the kind of marriage that Mr collins proposes. He is non proposing out of live, but that he feels he should, and he is sure of Lizzys acceptance. He does however manage to win over himself he does in feature like her before I am run a way with my feelings is unity of his first lines during the proposal. The proposal itself is stated in a truly long-winded way, however, as currently as Mr Collins has asked for time alone with Lizzy, she knows what it is for she thinks, it would be wisest to get it over with as soon and as quietly as possible. This is reflected in how she reacts to Mr Collins repeated pleas. all told through it he is still convincing himself and trying to convince Lizzy that he is in love, or making any other exc engrosss he can for marrying her. We know he does not love her, as, however, earlier in the book it is verbalize Mr Collins had only to change from Jane to Elizabeth and it was soon done.The proposal was very formal and long Mr Collins often seems to be speaking a monologue, emphasized by Elizabeth trying to stop him and the complete use of precede speech. These are all similar to the first proposal by Mr Darcy, thus far if the motivation behind it was very different. They are both certain they ordain be accepted because of an advantage to Lizzy. It is crystalize that Mr Collins and Mr Darcy do not know Elizabeth well generous when they propose, as neither chose to ask her a way that she is likely to accept.The second proposal is different in designer from the first, but its manner is similar in many ways. After his untimely expression of love, which is surprising and awkward You must allow me to tell you how ardently I admire and love you. Darcy regains his confidence and begins a long exposition of why he loves her. However, what he says is misunderstood by Lizzy as she says with so evident a design of offending and insulting me. Mr Darcy is in fact attempting to explain that he loves her de enmity her position and connections.Lizzy may have accepted, or been more likely to accept if his timing had been better however, he asks her at a time where she has just recently found out that Darcy was to satanic for her babes troubles, and is very angry with him Mr Darcys shameful boast about what misery he had been able to inflict. It is not only the timing, if he had known Lizzy well enough he could have guessed the reception she would give to the method of his proposal. This is a law of similarity to the first proposal, from Mr Collins, but very different to the last.It is only after Mr Darcy has unexpended that Elizabeth realises how much she has overreacted to what he has said to her, and also how ready she had been to believe what anyone had said about him. These feeling are then reinforc ed after she receives his garner explaining how mistaken she has been about many of his accusations. After thinking over and re-reading the letter several time, she starts to realise she does in fact not hate Darcy as much as she first thought, and even starts to have feelings for him, in spite of what he has done to her sister. This is further exaggerated as Elizabeth discovers he has provided for her sister to get married after she ran away with Mr Wickham. His intentions behind this are clear if he had not, he would not have been able to marry her, as she would be disgraced. Darcy realises that she may have feelings for him still, after Lizzy refuses to tell Lady Catherine de Bough that she pass on never marry Mr Darcy and decides to return to Netherfield with Mr Bingley, who he has recently convinced to love Lizzys sister, Jane again. Elizabeth was hoping he would come, but was almost scared too and was expecting that he would sojourn away and send a letter of excuse.The thir d and final proposal in the book has light in common with either of the others. It is quick, rather of long winded and this is even more emphasized by the use of reported speech instead of direct. It is however the same in power to the first proposal by Mr Darcy love. The difference being that this time it is matte in both directions. It is also quite unexpected, though hoped for by them both.Darcy is unsealed of how to ask Elizabeth, so she encourages him by taking him for his help with her sisters marriage. This probably caused him to in conclusion believe he may stand a real find with her and so then proposes. He does so in a way which shows how much better he knows her because it is an equal conversation instead of one or the other thinking themselves superior. It is also far more sluttish and shows us ways in which they both have changed. Lizzy is less confident, and for in one case not sure of herself whereas Mr Darcy has realised that to be liked he should not act su perior and stubborn.The three proposals received by Lizzy in Pride and Prejudice are contrasting in some ways and are similar in others however, there is nothing or very little in common between all three. The progression in the book is from what Jane Austen believed was the worst kind of marriage, of the kind Mr Collins proposes, to what she believed was best and hoped for herself a fair(a) and equal meeting.